Field Notes- Examples

Sixth-twelfth grade science students are required to take detailed notes during our outing to the Tall Grass Prairie next Friday.  These notes and sketches will be necessary in order to prepare your research papers in the near future.  Also refer to handouts titled "Instructions for Taking Field Notes".  Here are a couple of examples of how you should prepare your notes.  You may have to open the images by clicking on them in order to read my handwriting.

Poison Ivy vs. Virginia Creeper

It is important to recognize Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) in the field. Poison Ivy flowers from May to July and occurs on a variety of sites and soil types; in both open and wooded areas. Contact with plant parts can cause severe skin irritation caused by an allergic reaction to urushiol. Virginia Creeper or Five Leaf Ivy (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) looks similar, but is not toxic. Both species occur in Oklahoma and are often found together at the same site. Poison Ivy has several growth forms and can occur as a vine or shrub. The leaves may be dark green to almost yellow. Leaves can turn red in the fall.


Skin irritation can occur by direct contact with the plant itself or by handling clothing, shoes, etc. that have touched the plant. There are several over the counter remedies for exposure to Poison Ivy, but more severe cases may require medical attention. Scratching affected areas cannot spread the rash, but may lead to infections. The best strategy is to learn to recognize this species and to simply avoid contact.

top photo shows Virginia Creeper; bottom illustrates one growth form of Poison Ivy. For more information and pictures of Poison Ivy visit the Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Information Center

 

Identifying Frog and Toad Vocalizations

One of best ways to identify anurans (frogs and toads) in the field is by their vocalizations.  Like birds, each anuran species has a unique mating call that can be accurately identified with some practice.  Here is an excellent website where you can listen to the calls of various north American species.


This photograph shows the Cricket Frog (Acris crepitans), a common species in Oklahoma that is small and well camouflaged, but can be easily identified by it's distinctive vocalization.


Cleveland Museum of Natural History- Index of Frog Calls

Field Trip Week has Finally Arrived- Friday, April 30th

The day is almost here and recent spring rains have coaxed out all manner of life; animals, plants, and fungi to boot.  There are a few items that we still need for our trip: pillow cases without holes for snakes and lizards, small tupperware containers for insects and spiders, and some old aquaria to contain specimens in the lab for observation.


This week student participants will study field collection techniques, safety, field etiquette map reading, and grassland ecology.  Wednesday science students will learn how to collect, identify, and pin insects.


Following our field day Wynona science students will begin their independent research.  Students will write up the results of their studies in a final report due at the end of the 4th quarter.  More instructions to follow.

Tall Grass Prairie Field Day Itinerary

Itinerary:

8:15 am Load Busses in the Wynona High School parking lot.
8:30- Depart Wynona on route to the preserve approximately (18 miles)
9:15- Arrive at the grassland preserve and unload; restroom break.
10:00-10:20- On-site Orientation at the preserve headquarters building. Presented by the Nature Conservancy staff.
10:30-11:15- 1st Group Session.
11:25-11:50- Lunch at the picnic area southwest of the headquarters.
12:00-12:45- 2nd Group Session.
12:55-1:40- 3rd Group Session.
1:50-2:35- 4th Group Session.
2:45- 3:00 pm- Restroom break and load up for departure.
3:35 pm- Arrive back at Wynona High School.

Participants and guests must be ready to load busses at 8:15 am. We will leave Wynona promptly at 8:30. This will be a very tight schedule and student groups must move quickly from one station to the next. There will be five total stations and student groups/grades will be assigned to four of the five by a lottery system. Study sites will be in the vicinity of the picnic area on Sand Creek and will be close enough together so that participants can move from one to the next in 10 minutes or less. Group leaders will coordinate rotations using 2-way radios and sponsors and teachers will accompany their assigned group/grade from one study site to the next. Restrooms and a water station will be available within about 100 yards of the picnic area.

Dragon Fly Nymphs

One of the aquatic macroinvertebrate groups we will be looking for at the tall grass prairie are dragon flies.  The Nymphs are aquatic predators commonly found in Oklahoma streams.  These arthropods are important members of the aquatic community preying on other invertebrates and even small fish.  Dragon flies and damsel flies both belong to the taxonomic order Odonata.

Wynona Senior Prom 2010

Wynona High School Senior Class 2010

Teaching Philosophy

My primary objectives as a science teacher are to assist in intellectual growth and to increase knowledge and understanding of the natural sciences.  To this end, I try to communicate science in a straitforward, fun, and meaningful way.  I want to act as a guide by pointing students in the right direction to find answers and solve problems.  I want to facilitate in students a lifelong love of science learning and to encourage a broad appreciation for the unity and diversity of life.

I want to motivate students to be active thinkers.  I challenge, yet support students in class in order to improve their self-confidence.  I try to conduct class in a manner that captures students’ interest and encourages them to think and ask questions.  I often pause to give insight into why we have made certain steps and what we hope to achieve in steps to come.  I want students to anticipate what is coming next.  This, I believe helps develop their problem solving skills and fosters critical thinking.

In order to help students reach their learning goals, I always try to have a clear set of objectives guiding us through various experiential learning exercises, both in the laboratory and in the field.  I use a variety of hands on exercises, models, and computer simulations to encourage students to formulate independent ideas and apply that knowledge to new situations.  Ultimately, I want to enable students to make judgments based on observations and quantitative data.

I believe that students need to feel comfortable approaching their instructor with questions.  I try to organize complex thoughts and concepts for students, but sometimes when students do not get it, I may employ a variety of learning styles and reflective practice.  I also encourage the students to get individual help from me outside class.

Photograph above shows college science education students teaching Tulsa area high school students during the Dwight D. Eisenhower Workshop 1999. 

Advise to Students from Bill Gates

Love him or hate him, he sure hits the nail on the head with this! To anyone with kids of any age, here's some advice.

Bill Gates recently gave a speech at a High School about 11 things they did not and will not learn in school. He talks about how feel-good, politically correct teachings created a generation of kids with no concept of reality and how this concept set them up for failure in the real world.

Rule 1 : Life is not fair - get used to it!
Rule 2 : The world won't care about your self-esteem. The world will expect you to accomplish something BEFORE you feel good about yourself.
Rule 3 : You will NOT make $60,000 a year right out of high school. You won't be a vice-president with a car phone until you earn both.
Rule 4 : If you think your teacher is tough, wait till you get a boss.
Rule 5 : Flipping burgers is not beneath your dignity. Your
Grandparents had a different word for burger flipping: they called it opportunity.
Rule 6: If you mess up, it's not your parents' fault, so don't whine about your mistakes, learn from them.
Rule 7 : Before you were born, your parents weren't as boring as they are now. They got that way from paying your bills, cleaning your clothes and listening to you talk about how cool you thought you were. So before you save the rain forest from the parasites of your parent's generation, try delousing the closet in your own room.
Rule 8 : Your school may have done away with winners and losers, but life HAS NOT. In some schools, they have abolished failing grades and they'll give you as MANY TIMES as you want to get the right answer. This doesn't bear the slightest resemblance to ANYTHING in real life.
Rule 9 : Life is not divided into semesters. You don't get summers off and very few employers are interested in helping you FIND YOURSELF. Do that on your own time.
Rule 10 : Television is NOT real life. In real life people actually
have to leave the coffee shop and go to jobs.
Rule 11 : Be nice to nerds. Chances are you'll end up working for one.

Tallgrass Prairie Field Day Fast Approaching

Our tallgrass prairie field day Friday, April 30th will be here before we know it. I will publish an agenda on ZooBlog soon. We will host five visiting scientists from several colleges and universities from around the state.


Richard Butler, BS, Herpetology, McLoud High School Science Teacher, St. Gregory's University alumnus
Kyle Winters, BS, Terrestrial Entomology, Norman, Oklahoma, St Gregory's University alumnus.
Dr. John McWilliams, Ph.D., Aquatic Invertebrates, Professor, Oklahoma Baptist University, Shawnee, OK
Mrs. Adrienne Dastgir, BS, MS, Botany, St. Gregory's alumnus.
Mrs. Angela Reeder, BS, Ichthyology, Shawnee, OK, St. Gregory's University alumnus.
Mr. Doyle Crosswhite, BS, MS, Field Director/Ecologist, Wynona High School Science Teacher


Our main rendezvous point on the preserve will be the picnic area/nature trail area on Sand Creek. The arial photo above shows the wooded area adjacent to Sand Creek where most of our activities will take place. Students will be divided up into five or six groups of 12-18 students per group.  Students will spend about 45 minutes in each group.  Among other activities participants will collect and identify fish, terrestrial arthropods, aquatic macroinvertebrates, land plants, reptiles and amphibians.  Specimens will be taken back to the Wynona Science lab for further study and preservation.  Aquatic macroinvertebrates  species diversity data will be collected and analyzed to determine the water quality at the Sand Creek site.  These data will be compared to last year's collections.

The Tallgrass Prairie Preserve is the largest protected remnant of tallgrass prairie left on earth. Originally spanning portions of 14 states from Texas to Minnesota, urban sprawl and conversion to cropland have left less than 10% of this magnificent American landscape. Since 1989, the Conservancy has proven successful at restoring this fully-functioning portion of the tallgrass prairie ecosystem with the use of about 2500 free-roaming bison and a "patch-burn" model approach to prescribed burning.

Biodiversity Threats in the area include habitat fragmentation and loss, current grazing and fire practices, invasive plant species such as sericea lespedeza and eastern red cedar, and stream degradation due to land management practices and soil erosion.

What the Conservancy is doing now will offer conservation-minded ranchers an alternative to traditional grazing practices. Conservancy staff have already conducted several "patch-burn" workshops with area cattle ranchers to illustrate the potential rewards of embracing this wildlife-friendly method of land management, while continuing to meet the bottom line for their cattle production operations. In addition to alternative grazing practices, The Nature Conservancy is offering to hold conservation easements for land owners who would like to ensure the preservation of their property.

Our "Patch Burn" approach utilizes prescribed burning on roughly 1/3rd of productive rangeland each year, leaving the remaining portions undisturbed by fire. Early research by Oklahoma State University indicates that the complex and mosaic plant communities produced by this "patchy" approach offers huge rewards for biodiversity. Approximately three dozen prescribed burns are conducted each year totaling 15,000 - 20,000 acres. Since 1991, over 350 prescribed burns have been conducted totaling 210,000 acres. In addition we have assisted neighboring ranches burn 170,000 acres and helped them suppress 50 wildfires.

The  Tallgrass Prairie Ecological Research Station was completed in 2004. This state-of-the-art facility will offer field researchers the opportunity to conduct extended studies and initiate laboratory analysis for rangeland research. The research station will also be utilized as a workshop destination for university students, researchers and conservation professionals from across the United States.

More than three dozen research projects are active on the preserve, and 78 publications in scientific journals have been produced. An exciting "patch-burn" was initiated with Oklahoma State University in 2001 on 7,300 acres. This study is testing the wildlife, plant community and cattle gains in patch-burn versus completely burned cattle pastures. The objective is to achieve similar conservation benefits as those documented in the fire-bison unit while retaining profit margin for cattle ranchers.  Learn more about The Nature Conservancy at:

The Nature Conservancy’s Tallgrass Prairie Preserve Website

Contact Doyle Crosswhite, Field Day Director at dcrosswhite@wynona.k12.ok.us with questions and/or suggestions. Parents are encouraged to attend this event.  Please RSVP with Crosswhite by Monday, April 26th.

Sack lunches and drinks will be provided for students and staff.  Transportation will be by bus/van caravan.  Among other things, participants should bring the following items:

sunscreen

hat

sturdy walking shoes (no open toed shoes)

insect spray

field notebooks and pencil

camera

small pack or book bag

change of clothes and dry towel (students will get wet and muddy)


More information to follow soon.

Richard Butler shows off a Timber Rattlesnake to Wynona students at the 2009 Tallgrass Field Day.

I Caught this Shark in Savanna, Georgia 2008

This is an Atlantic Sharpnose Shark that we caught in Savanna, Georgia in 2008.  The guide baited our hooks with fresh squid and took the kids out a couple of miles off the coast.  We caught two sharks and they were delicious.

Sharks Bite Their Mates During Copulation

Few people have actually witnessed sharks mating in the wild.  We know that in smaller, more flexible species like the Spiny Dogfish (Squalus acanthius), the male coils around the female.  In larger species, the male orients himself parallel and head-to-head to the female.  During mating, males of some species will bite the female on the pectoral fins or in the middle back to hold on.  The females often have thicker skin than the males, but they still bear the scars of these mating encounters.  Male sharks have claspers that convey sperm into the cloacal opening  of the female.  Our shark is a male; the claspers are clearly visible in this photo.

Spiny Dogfish Dissection in Zoology

We finally got around to the dogfish dissection today in Zoology class.  Students seemed less than impressed, but I love sharks.  I don't use gloves because I like to feel the placoid scales that feel like sand paper. Our specimen is about .25 m in length and is a male.  Male sharks have claspers as part of the pelvic fins.

Sharks all have large livers that help them control their buoyancy.  The second most prominent organ is the stomach.  Tomorrow we will open the stomach and see what our specimen last ate.

Wynona School Field Day at The Nature Conservancy's Tall Grass Prairie Preserve Friday, April 30th

This experience will provide our students with an appreciation of grassland and stream ecosystems and the importance of their conservation. Students will gain an appreciation for how grasslands function by studying their unique fauna and flora in the field. Our students along with faculty and parent sponsors will visit The Nature Conservancy’s Tall Grass Prairie Preserve in Osage County, Oklahoma. Students will learn how to collect data using the scientific method and establishing sample plots. Students will compare species diversity among disturbed and relatively pristine sites. We will sample both terrestrial plant and aquatic (stream) invertebrate/fish communities.

The project is designed to educate and motivate students and to instill in them an intrinsic appreciation for grassland ecosystems. We hope this field experience will help shape our future leaders to be citizens of the global environment.

We will apply conservation issues to personal experiences in order to build positive student attitudes toward the natural environment. We aim to guide the development of student’s problem solving and critical thinking skills while exploring relationships among: biodiversity, ecosystem processes, and societal issues.

We will utilize field exercises to improve students’ understanding of scientific method and experimental design while creating a synthesis of Conservation Biology and fundamental statistics.

How will this grant affect student learning? Our participants will experience field studies involving an investigative approach to help students to appreciate the spirit and nature of natural science and develop problem solving, analytical, critical thinking, and synthesis skills. This project will help students become accustomed to playing an active role in science by collecting and working with data rather than simply memorizing facts. Students will study inquiry-based activities in botany and aquatic ecology. Students will conduct field experiments to analyze biodiversity of plants and stream animals (macroinvertebrates, amphibians, and fish).

In 2009 we received this grant that allowed our school to the same field experience to forty five 6-12th grade students. This year we will collect data for comparison to our 1st sampling at our established sites. Last season this field trip was the highlight of our science lessons allowing students to apply what they had learned in classroom exercises. Our field trip also facilitated parents and community leaders to get involved. As a direct result of last year’s funding we now offer Zoology as a junior/senior level class at our school. The organisms we collected in the field were preserved for long-term use in our teaching collection. We intend to further expand the collection this year in addition to data that will compare to last season. This year we want to expand the field curriculum to include 4th and 5th grade students as well.

Students will be directed in the use of standardized methods for sampling plants and aquatic animals and basic experimental design. The number of species and their relative abundance will be compared among sites using elementary statistics and basic graphing techniques. We will apply appropriate experimental design and statistical analyses to data collected in the field. Basic statistical procedures will include measures of central tendency, dispersion, and variability. Additionally, tables and graphs will be used to analyze trends in the data we collect.

Several studies over the past two decades have shown that aquatic animals, especially invertebrates, are excellent indicators of water quality. These procedures are commonly used by municipalities and state and federal agencies to assess the biological integrity of streams. The basic underlying assumption is that aquatic organisms and their presence/absence are useful indicators of environmental health. For this reason, students can easily relate these field and laboratory activities to real-world applications such as water quality assessment, drinking water standards, and environmental protection policies.

More information will be forthcoming as we develop the agenda.

Last Night's Astronomy Outing a Huge Success!

There were more than 40 students in attendance for the Astronomy outing last night at the WPS Baseball Field. Fifteen Wynona faculty, staff, and parents chaperoned the event and helped prepare the bonfire and weenie roast.  Observers were able to observe a full moon as well as the constellation Orion, the planet Venus, and stars including: Sirius and Rogel.

Astronomical Viewing Exercise- Monday, 29 March

Our guest scientist, Mr. William St. John will set up his telescopes on the WPS Baseball Field next Monday, March 29th. Weather permitting we will have a good view of the March full moon. We will begin setting up at around 6:45pm and it should be getting dark around 7:45. Preceding the exercise, we will have a small bonfire and hotdog cookout. Hotdogs and chips will be provided. Soda pop will be for sale at $1/can. Participants may want to bring the following items: lawnchair or blanket to sit on, hot dog roasting sticks, binoculars, spotting scopes, camera, and/or your own telescope.

Students, parents, faculty, and staff are invited to attend. Sixth- 12th grade students do not require a chaperone. Younger students should be accompanied by a parent or teacher. Right now around 39 people are scheduled to attend. Six- 12th grade students can potentially earn up to 25 points of bonus credit toward their grade in science. In order to earn the maximum students must: 1) be on their best behavior, 2) stay for at least 30-45 minutes of viewing time or until they get a look through the telescope, 3) finally, students who expect credit must take notes and write a one-page summary of their observations and what they learned. The summaries will be due on the following Wednesday, 31 March. All school policies and rules are in effect at this event. We hope to see you there.  If you have questions or wish to volunteer to help set up, contact Crosswhite at dcrosswhite@wynona.k12.ok.us

Earth Science Websites of Interest for Students

WPS Earth Science Students,

Here are two excellent websites I came across recently.  The first is a site published by the National Science Foundation explores the relationship between global climate change and the hydrologic cycle.  There are videos and much more. http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/degree/water.jsp

The second site, http://facweb.bhc.edu/academics/science/harwoodr/geol101/labs/minerals/ is designed to help students identify common minerals and study their properties.

Astronomical Viewing March 29th at the Wynona Baseball Field

I have invited William St. John to bring his telescope and set up an astronomy demonstration at the Wynona High School baseball field the evening of Monday, March 29th.  

There will be a full moon to view and possibly some interesting constellations. The tentative plan is to spend 1 ½-2 hours allowing visitors to come and go.  WPS students, staff, and parents are welcome.

I may try to grill some hot dogs for those who want a snack.  Of course if it is overcast or nasty weather, we will have to reschedule. Revisit ZooBlog periodically for updates.

2002 Ice Storm in Western Oklahoma

As we continue to get more winter weather, I was thinking about past Oklahoma winters.  I found this photograph that I took in Enid back 2002.  The location is a block north of State Highway 412 on the west side of town.  Power was out for two weeks in some places.  Once as a child, I remember it snowing on Easter.  Hopefully we will escape the icy weather this week.

Oklahoma PASSages Master Teacher Project: Regional Curriculum Conference

The 2010 Northeast Regional Curriculum Conference will be held in Grove, Oklahoma on Thursday, June 17th.  The conference is hosted by the Oklahoma Master Teachers Project.  I have been a part of the project since August 2009.  Wynona School faculty are conducting a series of book study sessions this school year as part of the project.  During the fall term five Wynona teachers read and discussed the book entitled, Active Literacy Across the Curriculum: Strategies for Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening by Heidi Hayes Jacobs.  Over the spring term our group will read Keys to Curriculum Mapping: Strategies and Tool to Make it Work, by Susan Udelhofen.  At the conference in June, two Wynona faculty will make presentations describing their research to northeastern Oklahoma's teachers.  The Master Teachers Project is ongoing and is seeking new applicants for 2010-2011.  Applications are due February 12th.  Members of the project team serve as mentors and trainers serving teachers throughout their respective regions.  Participants receive reimbursement for travel as well as an $1,800 stipend for their service.  For more information and applications, visit the Oklahoma State Department of Education's web site at: http://sde.state.ok.us/Teacher/Master/default.html or contact me at dcrosswhite@wynona.k12.ok.us

Weird, Wacky Water Critters Workshop at the Rogers Co. Conservation Education Reserve in Claremore, Oklahoma.

Teachers and students clear away ice at the Rogers County Conservation Education Reserve in Claremore, Oklahoma on Thursday in Order to sample Macroinvertebrates.  The training sponsored by the Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality and the Rogers County Conservation District hosted 25 teachers and students from around the state.  The workshop was part of the Environmental Education Grants program and is funded by the purchase of Oklahoma Environmental Awareness License Tags for vehicles.  Applications for tags may be obtained at your local tag agent or by calling DEQ at 405-702-7138.  Twenty four of the $35 purchase price goes to the Environmental Education Fund.  Wynona Public School has received funding from this program the past two years.  The funds allow us to purchase equipment and materials, host guest scientists, and to spend the day at the Tall Grass Prairie doing real inquiry based science in the field.  In addition to aquatic macroinvertebrates like crayfish, mayfly and dragonfly nymphs, and water striders, our students will also study reptiles and amphibians, plants, and fish.  Guest professors and college students will assist with the field investigations and will allow Wynona students to get a taste of what scientists really do.  This expedition is just what our small town kids need.  I CHALLENGE OUR CITIZENS AND COMMUNITY LEADERS TO GET IN INVOLVED OR TO HELP SPONSOR THIS EVENT.  Last year several parents and teachers helped sponsor the event.  I want to extend my heartfelt thanks to those individuals. You are all invited to attend again this year.  The date is yet to be scheduled, but will likely take place in late April or early May.  For more information, questions, or suggestions contact Doyle Crosswhite at dcrosswhite@wynona.k12.ok.us or call 580-541-4129.

57th Annual Bartlesville District Science Fair Friday, March 6th, 2010

The Bartlesville District Science Fair invites students to participate in the 2010 competition.  Grades 7-12 will be at the Conoco Phillips Technology Center Saturday, March 6th starting at 7:30 AM.  Applications to participate are due by February 19th, 2010.  For rules, application forms, and more information visit the International Science and Engineering Fair website at: http://www.societyforscience.org/isef/students/wizard/index.asp

The Development of American Land Ethics

Since the initial European settlement of North America, agricultural and industrial development has greatly contributed to the rapid alteration of our natural ecosystems.  During the past one hundred and fifty years, America's ecologists have struggled to modernize our country's ethical relationship with the natural environment.  This period has become known as the environmental movement.  The original philosophies of the early contributors to this movement remain at the center of our ecological theory even today.  It is for this reason that reviewing the development of America's "land ethic" is an important step in gaining an understanding of today's ecological problems.

The history of the environmental movement in America began in the late nineteenth century with the publication of conservation oriented books and articles such as Henry David Thoreau's “Walden” and “God's first Temples: How Shall We Preserve Our Forests?” by John Muir.  Works like these soon began to persuade Americans that the land had important uses other than agriculture and industry.  The time had finally come for the land to begin to be recognized for its aesthetic and recreational value as well as its economic worth to future generations.

The idea that land had value as a thing of beauty was a relatively new idea.  This view was expressed in naturalist and author Henry Thoreau's works.  Thoreau proposed that nature was a thing of beauty and was best appreciated in its natural state, saying that in nature, "man is rich in proportion to the number of things he can afford to let alone" (Walden 129).  Even though Thoreau's theories on nature were idealistic and to some extent impractical to the agriculturally oriented population in the 1850's, his basic philosophies were later widely held by naturalists such as John Muir.

Like Thoreau, Muir was somewhat of an idealist in his approach to conservation; nevertheless, he led the environmental movement for the next fifty years until his death in 1914.  Muir's success in his conservation efforts was in part due to his skills as a writer.  Like Thoreau, Muir also had the gift of expressing himself beautifully on paper.  He began by using his literary skills to help encourage government control of the nation's forests (Muir, Wilderness 311).  Muir's first article, "God's First Creations: How Shall We Preserve Our Forests?” appeared in the February 5, 1875 edition of the Sacramento Record‑Union paper.  The essay protested environmental destruction in the Sierra Mountains caused by overgrazing and lumbering (Muir, 311).  Muir believed that "Exploitation of the earth's resources would only bring unbalance and cause ultimate poverty for all" (Wolfe 188). He also thought that wilderness had cultural and recreational value.  These ideas of land maintaining aesthetic and recreational significance were contrary to early settlers views.  Previously, the pioneers in America had seen the wilderness as a deadly enemy that needed to be conquered.  Muir, however, thought that mankind had no right to subdue and exploit the lower creatures and destroy the wilderness simply for economic gain (Wolfe 188).  From these ideas Muir developed a strong philosophy toward America's wilderness areas, maintaining that "Everybody needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where nature may heal and cheer and give strength to the body and soul alike" (Wolfe 189).  Rather than something that needed to be conquered, Muir saw wilderness as something to be enjoyed.

As time went by, Muir's ideas became more popular with the government.  Politicians began to realize that conservation might be in the interest of generations to come.  For example, During Theodore Roosevelt's presidency, 86 wildlife refuges were established in 17 states and three territories (Restoring America's Wildlife 5).

Another important government official, Gifford Pinchott who was a trained forester from Prussia also became an important figure in the conservation effort.  Pinchott led the creation of the National Forestry Commission that later became the National Forest Service.  In 1894, the commission was asked by congress to survey the timber reserves of the United States in order to recommend the creation of federal forest preserves.  John Muir was one of the men asked to help with the survey in 1894 (Wolfe 272).  Upon completion of the survey, the commission submitted a recommendation to president Grover Cleveland who then issued an executive order for the creation of 13 reservations totaling over 21,000,000 acres of forest in the western United States (Wolfe 272).

Initially, reservations of this type were created for the preservation of wilderness for economic and recreational purposes rather than for the protection of plant and animal species.  Later conservation efforts in the early 1900's began to attempt to manage wildlife species to benefit agriculture, but it was not until the mid 1900's that conservationists considered species preservation an end in itself.  One of the first naturalists to recognize the importance of protecting nongame species (species not sought for sport) was the ecologist Aldo Leopold.

Aldo Leopold has since become one of the most influential conservationists ever involved in the environmental movement.  In 1908, Leopold graduated with a master’s degree in forestry from the newly created forestry school at Yale University.  He soon moved to the Arizona Territory, where he became deputy supervisor of the Carson National Forest of northern New Mexico.  After one year as deputy supervisor Leopold was promoted to the position of supervisor for the Carson (Leopold, Wilderness 6).  Even though Leopold's job was to oversee the management of the Carson, he was also concerned with the game species there.  It is important to note that at this time Leopold is primarily concerned with the welfare of game animals.  As his prospective broadened with experience, Leopold began to understand the interrelationships between all animals and plants.  This development in Aldo Leopold's ecological philosophy and the ultimate publication of A Sand County Almanac greatly affected modern views of conservation.

In many of Leopold's early publications, game management was stressed as a method of increasing numbers of game animals.  He defined game Management as the purposeful manipulation of factors that limited population growth in game animals (Leopold, Game Management 44).  Leopold called these environmental variables "limiting factors".  These so‑called limiting factors included such things as availability of adequate food, water, and space.

Leopold advocated the manipulation of these variables in 1933.  Leopold believed that game could be managed effectively using the following tools: (1) game censusing, (2) surveying the productivity of a population by counting the number of kills per unit of population, (3) installation of refuges, (4) controlling hunting through incentives to hunters and police power, (5) predator control, (6) controlling food and water availability through the use of feeding stations, (7) control of vegetative cover through the use of planting, plowing, and controlled burning, and (8) disease control (Leopold, Game Management).  It is important to note that at this time Leopold believed in predator control as a viable means of managing game populations.  This practice is later found by Leopold to be an ecologically unsound practice.  In 1933, however, he was interested in coming the nearest to serving the interests of all those involved in the predator control controversy (Leopold, Game Management 230).  Leopold believed that predatory animals directly affected four kinds of people, (1) agriculturists, (2) game managers and sportsmen, (3) students of natural history, and (4) the fur industry (Leopold, 230).  He also realized that there was a certain degree of conflict of interest that existed between these four groups.  In many cases, students of natural history wanted no predator control while many farmers and hunters wanted as much as they could get to complete eradication (Leopold, Game Mgt.230).

The evolution of Leopold's philosophy towards predator control is first revealed in the omission of predator control as a means of management in an article appearing in the American Game Magazine in July 1925.  In this article entitled, "Ten New Developments in Game Management", predator control was not recognized as a means of control.

In July 1930, Leopold's article "Game Management in the National Forests" was published in American Forests magazine.  In this article he questions excessive manipulation of the environment and such methods as predator control, saying, it is a "two edged sword" and that it tends to "artificialize sport and thus destroy the very recreational values which the conservation movement seeks to obtain" (Leopold).

In 1924, Leopold left Arizona to accept a position as associate director of the forest service's forest products laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin.  In 1933, he left the Forest Service for good and joined the faculty of the University of Wisconsin.  By the time Leopold left the southwest he had become an advocate for restoring abused natural habitats, conducting wildlife research, reintroducing extirpated native animals, promoting sportsmanship, promulgating biologically sound hunting regulations, forming politically active conservation organizations, and preserving both wilderness and threatened species (Leopold's Wilderness 74).

By the time Leopold began teaching he had learned more than one valuable lesson about mankind's relationship with the land.  He had come to regard humans as a part of the ecological community.  This community concept held that, "The role of people in their ecological community must change from conqueror of the land to member and citizen of it" (Sand County 240).  Leopold observed, "the disposal of private property to most land owners was purely a matter of expediency, not of right and wrong" (Sand County 237).  He knew the land was sick and that it was becoming less and less able to renew itself (Leopold 245).  Leopold also saw that land that lacked economic value was being destroyed.  Ecosystems were being conformed to fit the needs of man without regard for future consequences.  Leopold said, "lack of economic value often characterizes species or whole biotic communities such as marshes, bogs and deserts" (Leopold 245).

Leopold soon drew an analogy between treatment of the environment and treatment of human beings.  He understood treatment of the land to be related to the ethics and morals of society saying,  "Land ethics are still governed wholly by self‑interest, just as social ethics were a century and a half ago" (Leopold 245).  With Leopold's belief that nature had rights was born the concept of land ethics.

From this point on Leopold began to be very concerned with the moral treatment of the environment.  A Sand County Almanac is a beautiful statement of this conception of mans moral obligation to the environment.  Leopold uses a very deontological approach to land ethics by explaining that; "In examining a question in terms of what is ethically and aesthetically right, as well as what is economically expedient.  A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community.  It is wrong when it tends otherwise" (Leopold 262).

The philosophy of today's conservationists directly reflects Leopold's fundamental principle of land ethics.  Eugene P. Odum one of today's foremost ecologists argues that;  "External environmental constraints will not be adequate negative feedback for society.  So strong is the economic positive feedback of technological growth that overshoots seem inevitable if only external limits are involved" (Blackstone 10).

Odum, like Leopold believes that "Individuals must have respect for the environment and that laws alone will not correct the problem of land abuse".  Odum explains "Extensions of ethics to include man‑in‑environment relationships must become an integral part of man's philosophy"  (Blackstone 10).

Even though not all people in the United States consider their moral obligations to the environment, the are beginning to see benefits associated with land other than economic gain.  Today Americans understand that wilderness represents our heritage and culture and should thus be preserved.  Modern recreational activities such as backpacking and canoeing require wilderness.  These activities have become part of our historical heritage.

Americans do often fail to realize however, that wilderness is valuable for another reason.  Large expanses of undisturbed land are necessary to support many species of wild plants and animals.  Some organisms simply cannot stand any human interaction.

Land ethics and moral principles concerning the treatment of our natural ecosystems have come a long way in the last one hundred and fifty years, but we still have a long way to go.  If we are to be successful in our endeavors to preserve our natural heritage, we must instill the principals of land ethics in the generations of the future.  One of the most effective ways of accomplishing this task is to learn from our mistakes and look to the past for the answers for the future.

Cornbread Crumbs as an Alternative to Bird Seed

Cornbread crumbs seems to be a good alternative to regular bird-feed in a winter pinch.  With the snow on birds seem to really relish the cornbread crumbs we tossed out the other night.  I wasn't sure if they would find it and eat, but they sure did.  White-breasted Nuthatches, White-creasted Sparrows, and Juncos were the most interested.

Snow Birds

Sometimes winter weather is really tough on birds; especially when the ground is frozen and snow covered.  Birds have a difficult time foraging and they must expend a lot of energy to locate food.  Native winter birds require a lot more high quality food just to stay warm.  Feeding stations may help, but this may also have its drawbacks.  When birds congregate at feeders they are easier targets for predators and disease.  Domestic cats can be a significant problem; especially in urban environments.  It helps to place feeding stations near good cover such as red cedar trees or dense shrubs.  This allows birds a place to hide from predators and shelter from wind.  Some excellent foods for winter birds include: black oil sunflower seeds and suit.  Mealworms are also good for insectivorous species such as Eastern Bluebirds and the Carolina Wren pictured here.